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Mahayana Buddhism
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Mahayana
Mahayana (Sanskrit: mahāyāna "Great Vehicle", Chinese: 大乘, Dàshèng;
Japanese: 大乗, Daijō; Korean: 대승, Dae-seung; Vietnamese: Đại Thừa) is one
of two major branches of Buddhism existing today, the other being
Theravada (上座部). Mahayana originated during the first century CE in the
Indian subcontinent, and spread to China during the second century CE.
Subsequently it spread throughout East Asia. The main countries in which
it is practiced today are China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Mahayana is a vast religious and philosophical structure. It constitutes
an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new sutras, in
addition to the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the understanding
of Buddhism, an understanding which sees itself as penetrating further
and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. In the Mahaparinirvana
Sutra, for instance, the Buddha tells of how his initial teachings on
suffering, impermanence and non-Self were given to those who were still
like "small children", unable to digest the full "meal" of Truth,
whereas when those spiritual students "grow up" and are no longer
satisfied by the preliminary ingredients of the Dharmic meal fed to them
and require fuller sustenance, they are then ready to assimilate the
full and balanced fare of the Mahayana teachings (Tibetan
Mahaparinirvana Sutra).
Mahayana Buddhist schools, namely Pure Land Buddhism, deemphasize the
traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering and attainment
of Awakening. In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable,
inconceivable, omnipresent Being. In addition, most Mahayana schools
believe in a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas (菩薩) that devote
themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation
of humanity and all other sentient beings (animals, ghosts, demigods
etc.). Zen Buddhism is a school of Mahayana which often deemphasizes the
pantheon of Bodhisattvas and instead focuses on the meditative aspects
of the religion. In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an idealized
example, present in all times, in all beings and in all places, and the
Bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic
excellence.
The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around the
possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence
"great vehicle") and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying
transcendent Buddha-nature (佛性) - the eternal Buddha essence present but
hidden and unrecognised in all beings - who strive to achieve such a
goal. Some Mahayana schools simplify the expression of faith for the
common lay people, by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained
through the grace of the Buddha Amitabha (阿彌陀佛) by having faith and
devoting oneself in chanting to Amitabha. This devotional lifestyle of
Buddhism is most strongly emphasized by the Pure Land schools and has
greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where
spiritual elements traditionally relied upon chanting of a buddha's
name, of mantras or dharanis, reading of Mahayana sutras and mysticism.
From Mahayana developed the esoteric Vajrayana found mainly in Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia but also in adjacent areas of China, and even
India and Russia. The Vajrayana school claims to encompass all previous
schools.
The most complete Mahayana Canon today exists in the Chinese language,
mostly in translation from Sanskrit originals. In East Asia, Mahayana
scriptures and terminology are traditionally written in classical
Chinese. Two mainstream subsets of Mahayana Buddhism today are Amidism
or Pure Land (淨土宗) and Zen Buddhism (禪/禅宗).
Mahayana Buddhism can be characterized by:
* Universalism, in that everyone will become a buddha (see, for example,
the Lotus Sutra);
* Bodhicitta as the main focus of realization (see, for example, the
Nirvana Sutra and various Prajnaparamita Sutras);
* Compassion through the transferral of merit;
* Salvation - as opposed to liberation - supported by a rich
cosmography, including celestial realms and powers, with a spectrum of
bodhisattvas (菩薩), both human and seemingly godlike, who can assist
followers.
* Transcendental immanence, in that the immortal Buddha Principle (see,
for example, Buddha-nature, Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Angulimaliya Sutra,
Srimala Sutra, Tathagatagarbha Sutra) is present within all beings.
“Philosophical” Mahayana tends to focus on the first three
characteristics (universalism, enlightened wisdom, compassion) and, in
some schools, the Buddha-nature, without showing much interest in
supernatural constructions, while “devotional” Mahayana focuses mainly
on salvation towards other-worldly realms.
Universalism
Mahayana traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of
an arhat is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction
between the Mahayana and the early Buddhist schools concerning the
issues of nirvana-with-remainder and nirvana-without-remainder.
The early schools considered that nirvana-without-remainder always
follows nirvana-with-remainder (buddhas first achieve enlightenment and
then, at 'death', mahaparinirvana) and that nirvana-without-remainder is
final; whereas the Mahayana traditions consider that
nirvana-without-remainder is always followed by nirvana-with-remainder –
the state of attainment of the Hinayana arhat is not final, and is
eventually succeeded by the state of buddhahood, or total Awakening.
This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the
capability of a buddha after nirvana (which is identified by the early
schools as being nirvana-without-remainder). Most importantly, amongst
the early schools, a samyaksambuddha is not able to directly point the
way to nirvana after death. This is a major distinction between the
early schools and the Mahayana, who conversely state that once a
samyaksambuddha arises, he or she continues to directly and actively
point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in samsara (輪迴).
Because the views of early schools and Mahayana differ in this respect,
this is exactly why the Mahayana do not talk about a bodhisattva
postponing nirvana, and exactly why the early schools do.
For example, the early schools held that Maitreya (彌勒菩薩) will not attain
nirvana while Gautama Buddha's teachings still exist. In contrast, some
Mahayana schools hold that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in
this world and will introduce the dharma when it no longer exists; he is
not postponing his nirvana to do so, and when he dies (or enters
mahaparinirvana), he will likewise continue to teach the dharma for all
time. Moreover, some Mahayana schools argues that although it is true
that for this world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to
manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems, many of which
have currently active buddhas or buddhas-to-be manifesting.
So, based on the doctrinal distinctions between the early schools and
the Mahayana concerning the meaning of nirvana-without-remainder, we see
two distinct views concerning the path of the bodhisattva, with the
early schools stating that bodhisattvas postpone their own nirvana,
whereas the Mahayana schools state that bodhisattvas attempt to reach
nirvana as soon as possible, just as sravakas do, but with the motive to
continue to effortlessly benefit all beings for all time due to the
distinction of views regarding the ability of a buddha after
mahaparinirvana.
Because the Mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will
achieve samyaksambuddhahood or total enlightenment, the Mahayana is
labelled universalist, whereas because the Nikaya traditions assert that
there are three routes to nirvana, which are distinct, they are
considered not to be universalist.
Bodhicitta
According to most Mahayana followers, traditional Buddhism (Theravada)tends
to focus on an ascetic, individual approach to the attainment of
nirvana: suppression of desire, removal from the world, solitude. Its
followers are śrāvakas (聲聞) and pratyekabuddhas (緣覺).
The primary focus of some Mahayana schools is bodhicitta (菩提心), the vow
to strive for buddhahood or awakened mind both for oneself and for the
benefit of all other sentient beings. Being a high-level bodhisattva
involves possessing a mind of great compassion conjoined with insight
into reality (prajna, 般若), realizing emptiness (shunyata, 空), and/or the
tathagatagarbha (buddhic essence of all things, 如來藏). With this mind the
practitioner will realize the final goal of full enlightenment, or
buddhahood: an omniscient, blissful mind completely free from suffering
and its causes, that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all
living beings. Six virtues or perfections (paramitas) are listed for the
bodhisattva: generosity, morality, patience, energy, meditation, and
wisdom.
Many “philosophical” schools and sutras of Mahayana Buddhism have
focused on the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself, from the
Madhyamika (中観派) and its rival, Yogacara (瑜伽行), to the Tathagatagarbha
(如來藏) teachings and Zen (禪宗).
Compassion
Compassion, or Karuna (悲), is the other key concept of Mahayana, and is
a necessity to Bodhicitta. Compassion is important in all schools of
Buddhism, but is particularly emphasized in Mahayana. It relies on the
idea that acquired merit can be transmitted to others.
The bodhisattvas are the main actors of compassion, Avalokitesvara
(known in East Asia as Guan Yin, 觀音菩薩) being foremost among them.
Although having reached enlightenment, bodhisattvas usually make a vow
to postpone entering into nirvana (涅槃) until all other beings have also
been saved. They devote themselves to helping others reach
enlightenment.
The Mahayana idea that liberation is universal (see below) also allows
for one to focus less on the release of personal suffering and more on
humanity's salvation, and is consequently described to be more
universally compassionate and caring for the welfare of others than
other traditions of Buddhism.
A comparison between Hinayana (the name given by Mahayanists to the
earlier Buddhist traditions) and Mahayana made by the 10th century
Tibetan author Jé Gampopa in The Jewel Ornament of Liberation follows:
‘Clinging to the well-being of mere peace' signifies the lower capacity
[Hinayana] attitude wherein the longing to transcend suffering is
focused on oneself alone. This precludes the cherishing of others and
hence there is little development of altruism. [...] When loving
kindness and compassion become part of one, there is so much care for
other conscious beings that one could not bear to liberate oneself
alone. [...] Master Manjushriikiirti has said: ‘A Mahayana follower
should not be without loving kindness and compassion for even a single
moment', and ‘It is not anger and hatred but loving kindness and
compassion that vouchsafe the welfare of others'.
Expedient Means
The term Expedient Means is first coined in the Lotus Sutra, but is
generally accepted in all Mahayana schools of thought. In the
Mahaparinirvana Sutra, for instance, the Buddha tells of how his early
teachings on suffering, impermanence and non-Self were given to those
who were still like "small children", unable to digest the full "meal"
of Truth, whereas when those spiritual students "grow up" and are no
longer satisfied by the preliminary ingredients of the Dharmic meal fed
to them but require fuller sustenance, they are then ready to assimilate
the balanced and complete fare of the Mahayana doctrines (Tibetan
Mahaparinirvana Sutra).
Salvation
“Devotional” Mahayana developed a rich cosmography, with various
supernatural Buddhas and Bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms.
The concept of trinity, or trikaya (三身), supports these constructions,
making the Buddha himself into a transcendental god-like figure.
Under various conditions, these realms could be attained by devotees
after their death so that when reborn they could strive towards
buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this
salvation to “paradise” can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes
even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name. This approach to
salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism,
especially represented by the Pure Land (浄土宗).
This rich cosmography also allowed Mahayana to be quite syncretic and
accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been
suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional
cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered
into India from the northwest” (Tom Lowenstein, “The vision of the
Buddha”).
Transcendental Immanence
The teaching of a "Buddha Principle" (Buddha-dhatu) or "Buddha Nature"
innate to and inseparable from all sentient beings is a doctrine which
is indicated by the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras to constitute
the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma (see Nirvana Sutra).
The essential idea (articulated in the Tathagatagarbha sutras, but not
accepted by all Mahayana) is that no being is without a concealed but
indestructible interior link to Awakening (bodhi), and that this link is
an uncreated element [dhatu] or principle deep inside each being which
constitutes nothing less than the deathless, diamond-like "essence of
the Self" (Nirvana Sutra). In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha
declares: "The essence of the Self (atman) is the subtle Tathagatagarbha
..."
"The Buddha-dhatu [Buddha Principle, "Buddha Nature"] of beings inheres
/ abides within the five skandhas [transitory components of the being]."
"The Buddha-dhatu is the True Self and, like a diamond, for example, it
cannot be destroyed".
The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha-dhatu (co-terminous with
the Dharmakaya or Self of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic
Liberation. This Buddha-dhatu or Tathagatagarbha is revealed to be both
immanent (found in every single person, ghost, god and creature, etc.)
and transcendental (it is uncreated, deathless and ultimately beyond
rational grasping or conceptualisation). Yet it is this already real and
present, hidden internal element of bodhi (Awakeness) which, according
to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, prompts beings to seek after Liberation
from worldly suffering and enables them to attain the spotless bliss
which lies at the heart of their being. Once the veils of negative
thoughts, feelings and unwholesome behaviour (the kleshas) have been
eliminated from the mind and character, the indwelling Buddha-dhatu
(Buddha Principle / "Buddha Nature") is enabled to shine forth
unimpededly and to transform the seer of it into a Buddha. Thus the
Buddha-dhatu teaching is both an ontological and a soteriological
doctrine: it reveals the immortal, Buddhic "True Self" (as the Buddha in
the Mahaparinirvana Sutra repeatedly terms it) which is found to lie at
the core of each being when all the obscuring, transient elements of the
false ego are seen through and transcended, and it further verbalises
the liberative and transformative power inherent in the Tathagatagarbha
when once that vision of the innermost essence or svabhava of oneself
and all other beings has been secured.
This immanentist and essentialist doctrine is by no means universal in
Mahayana Buddhism and has long been a subject of vigorous debate.
Mahayana Scriptures
Like Theravāda Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of
the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the basis of its
teachings, such as those concerning the Four Noble Truths, the Middle
Way and the Eightfold Path. Whereas these basic teachings are preserved
in the Pali Canon, transmitted by the Theravādin tradition, in the
compilations of Buddha's discourses (sutta) known as the nikāyas,
Mahāyāna Buddhists use different recensions of these discourses in
compilations known as the āgamas, which largely overlap with the nikāyas
in content. Different schools within Mahāyāna were familiar with various
versions of the āgamas, but that which was most popular was affiliated
to the Sarvāstivādin school. In addition to accepting this core of basic
discourses (sūtra), Mahāyāna Buddhism also maintains additional
collections of sutras not found or recognized in Theravāda Buddhism.
The first of the Mahayana-specific writings were written probably around
the 1st century BCE. Some of the Mahayana Sutras, such as certain parts
of the Perfection of Wisdom sutras (般若波羅蜜多經), are presented as actual
sermons of the Buddha that had been hidden. By some accounts, these
sermons were passed on by oral tradition, as with other sutras; other
accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centuries
later by some mythological route. In addition to sutras, some Mahayana
texts are essentially commentaries.
Among the earliest major Mahayana scriptures attested to historically
are the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna-Paramita) sutras, the Avatamsaka
Sutra (華嚴經), the Lotus Sutra (妙法蓮華經), the Vimalakīrti Sutra (維摩詰經), and
the Nirvana Sutra (涅槃經).
The Mahayana sometimes classify Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings into three
hierarchical categories, based on levels of understanding the nature of
reality, known as "turnings of the wheel of dharma (truth)": those sutra
discourses containing the basic doctrines supposedly aimed at the
initial disciples or Śrāvakas, the emptiness teachings associated with
Madhyamika and the Prajna Paramita sutras (般若波羅蜜多經), and the doctrines
associated with Yogācāra which present the most accurate view of reality
according to this scheme. The Tathagatagarbha (如來藏) teachings are
normally included in the third turning of the wheel if the need arises
to classify them.
The Mahayana canon was further expanded somewhat after Buddhism was
transmitted to other countries such as China and Tibet, where the
existing texts were translated. New texts, such as the Platform Sutra
(六祖壇經) and the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment (圓覺經) were explicitly not
of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their
own merits. Other later writings included the Linji Lu (臨済錄), a
commentary by Chán (禪宗) master Linji Yixuan (臨済義玄). In the course of the
development of Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, further important
commentaries were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some
of the writings of Jinul, and in Japan, works such as Dogen's Shobogenzo.
Origins
The earliest origins of Mahayana-like thinking can be placed in the 1st
century BCE (approximately 400 years after the Buddha), as a few of the
Mahayana Sutras contain some text dated to this period. As a distinct
movement Mahayana began around the 1st century CE in the area around the
Kushan Empire (now part of Pakistan). Subsequently it was transmitted in
a more highly evolved form to China in the second century CE. Mahayana's
exact origin is unknown, however, a number of common elements and
background are suggested by various scholars and theologians.
The Abhidharma in the modern Theravada Pali canon and a Sarvastivada
Abhidharma composed in Sanskrit that survives in both the Chinese and
Tibetan traditions, has no common order of composition. This indicates
that overall, Buddhism became increasingly fragmented and that this
might have led to a widening distance between laity and sangha, who were
increasingly preoccupied with theological speculation. The Mahayana
movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of
theology from both the Sthaviravada (上座部) and Mahasanghika (大眾部) sects.
(Paul Williams, "Mahayana Buddhism", 1989). Moreover, those who believe
that Mahayana sutras were invented during this period speculate that the
process of reshuffling sutras in terms of relevance to various
Abbhidharma eventually led to editing itself. This process slowly eroded
the taboo regarding the composition of new sutras. This Mahayana
movement was rejected by the Theravada schools as heretical.
Another important element is the lay practice of stupa devotion, which
was actively encouraged by Ashoka. According to Akira Hirakawa (A
History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana), stupas —
which were initially mere monuments to Gautama Buddha — increasingly
became the place of devotion and of spreading Buddhism to the masses,
the majority of whom were illiterate Hindus. On the inside wall of the
stupa, pictures were drawn or sculpted depicting the life of Buddha and
his previous lives as a bodhisattva. This has given rise to devotion to
the transcendent omnipresent and always-present Buddha and the
bodhisattvas, distinct from the purely monastic sangha (see Early
Buddhist schools).
Epigraphical evidence
An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee,
the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara,
and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhara.
An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee,
the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara,
and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhara.
One of the first known mentions of the Buddha using the word Bhagavat or
Bhagavan ("Supreme Lord") is a dedication on a relic vase inserted in a
stupa in Gandhara, written in Kharoshthi by an Indo-Greek meridarch
(civil governor of a province) named Theodorus in the 1st century BCE:
"Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato
bahu-jana-stitiye":
"The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni, for
the welfare of the mass of the people"
(Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros)
The earliest stone inscriptions containing recognizably Mahayana
formulations and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha were found in the
Indian subcontinent in Mathura and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a
statue of a Buddha bear the Brahmi inscription:
"Made in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka, ... for the Buddha
Amitabha" (Mathura Museum).
Such inscriptions in Indian proper (Mathura) are rather late and few
(the next known one is dated to the end of the 3rd century), in
comparison to the multiplicity of Mahayana writings transiting from
Central Asia to China at that time, and the involvement of Central Asian
Buddhist monks, suggesting the focus of Mahayana development was
probably in the northwest.
Scriptures
The first known Mahayana texts are translations made into Chinese by the
Kushan monk Lokaksema (支娄迦谶) in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, between
178 and 189 CE.
Lokaksema's work includes the translation of the Pratyutpanna Sutra,
containing the first known mentions of the Buddha Amitabha and his Pure
Land, said to be at the origin of Pure Land practice in China, and the
first known translations of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, a founding text of
Mahayana Buddhism.
The 4th Buddhist Council
The formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism has been dated to around the middle
of the 2nd century CE, when the Kushan (貴霜) emperor Kanishka convened
the 4th Buddhist Council in Gandhara, which according to Mahayana legend
confirmed the formal scission of Mahayana Buddhism (大乘) from the
traditional Nikaya (小部) schools of Buddhism. Scholars however consider
this council purely Sarvastivada, if not fictitious.
This was also the time and place of a rich cultural interaction between
Buddhism and Hellenistic culture, which influenced the early
representations of buddhas, in what is known as Greco-Buddhist art.
Expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE)
From the 1st century CE and within the space of a few centuries,
Mahayana was to flourish and spread in from India to South-East Asia,
and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.
Mahayana disappeared from India during the 11th century, and
consequently lost its influence in South-East Asia where it was replaced
by Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka.
Mahayana remains, however, the most followed of the Buddhist doctrines
to this day in Eastern Asia and the world.
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